Global Journal of Human Social Science, C: Sociology and Culture, Volume 22 Issue 1

Though both nature-based and anthropogenic sources contribute to air pollution, human activities are responsible for the deterioration of urban air quality and public health damage (Türk and Kavraz, 2011). Manisalidis et al. (2020) argued that the industrial revolution emerged as an indication of social and economic progress. However, industrial production has failed to stop emitting many pollutants into the air. Many survival practices such as food production, high-energy use, burning fossil fuel for heat and transportation, household fuel combustion along with sanitary landfill and open dumping of solid waste raise the level of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (Co2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) in the atmosphere which heightens air pollution expeditiously (Khan and Alom, 2016; Manuja et al., 2018; Haryanto, 2018; Hussain et al., 2021). Air pollution is responsible for causing a wide range of adverse health outcomes, including wheezing, allergy, asthma attacks, coughing, chest pain, fatigue, irritation, high blood pressure, headaches, respiratory and cardiovascular distress, changes in lung function, and premature death from pulmonary and heart diseases (Seema, 2021; Marchwinska-Wyrwal et al., 2011; Rahman et al., 2006). Even exposure to low-level air pollution is associated with increasing the risk of dementia (Rigby, 2020). In their study, Balbus and Malina (2009) showed that the subpopulation susceptible to air pollution encompasses children, older adults, pregnant women, poverty-stricken individuals, people with chronic diseases, and outdoor workers. However, women are more likely to be susceptible to inflammatory lung diseases caused by air pollution and express detrimental pulmonary health crises than men (Cabello, 2015). Chen et al. (2005, as cited in Duncan, 2006) depicted that propensity of getting affected by air pollution for women is higher compared to men since women may deposit inhaled particles comprehensively in their lungs and become subjected to severe health hazards. The authors also speculated that women’s sensitivity to airborne pollution lies in having fewer red blood cells than men, which leads to more sensitiveness of women to the toxicological domination of air pollutants. Moreover, women and children suffer much from indoor air pollution caused by hugely polluting fuels for cooking and heating, mostly in developing countries (GBD, 2017, and WECF, 2018, as cited in OECD, 2020). For instance, poorly ventilated kitchen environments in low-income urban households in Bangladesh infect women and children with severe respiratory illness (Haque et al., 2017). Some research came up with the fact that there is a linkage between air pollution and psychological health, cognitive function, and aggressive attitude. A study conducted in the American and Indian urban communities showed that air pollution is responsible for enhancing anxiety and provoking immoral behaviors among adults (Lu et al., 2019). Kioumourtzoglou et al. (2017, as cited in OECD, 2020) revealed that increased risk of depression in middle-aged and older women in the United States is the result of a long period of exposure to high levels of PM2.5 and ozone. Duncan (2006) has also claimed that women suffer both physically and psychologically during air pollution events. He further emphasized the fact that growing air temperatures victimize women with possible heat- related morbidity, psychological stress, and violence, and deteriorating air quality threatens the health of women and children who are already suffering from indoor air pollution. In addition, air pollution impacts working women’s psychological health indirectly as they have to leave out their work to take care of the dependent members of their households (children and the elderly). The latter are comparatively sensitive to the health effects of air pollution (Montt, 2018). Another research (Merklinger-Gruchala et al., 2017) demonstrated that concentration of air pollutants influences women’s hormonal function, and therefore affects their menstrual cycle pattern, conception, oocyte quality and increases the risk of miscarriage. Apart from affecting women’s reproductive functions, fetal health, and fecundity, air pollutants, especially at ambient levels, bring about premature birth, intrauterine growth restriction, infant mortality, and male infertility crisis, as evidenced by epidemiological studies (Veras et al., 2010). educated females in poor families are four times more Volume XXII Issue I Version I 48 ( ) Global Journal of Human Social Science - Year 2022 © 2022 Global Journals C Women’s Perception of Air Pollution and Associated Health Hazard Aspects – A Study in Low- Income Urban Space in Bangladesh Exposure to air pollution in the capital city of Bangladesh, Dhaka, results in 15,000 early deaths and some millions of maladies each year (Faiz et al., 2004, as cited in Rahman et al., 2006). Haque et al. (2017) reported that emissions from motorized vehicles and different industrial sectors, activities in brick-kilns, smoke from traditional biomass fuels for cooking use, burning of coal, wood and municipal solid waste, etc. are the causes of air pollution in Dhaka city which leads to affecting health immunity, nervous system, respiratory and reproductive functions of human- being. The authors also revealed that respiratory illness and diarrheal disease caused by the poor condition of air is prevalently higher in Bangladesh compared to South East Asian Countries. Dasgupta et al. (2006) confirmed that in the Bangladeshi context, women’s exposure to household air pollution is double that of men in their prime age, and older men’s exposure is notably lower than their female counterparts. The authors further demonstrated that women’s family income and academic qualification influence their cooking options, and hence the range of getting affected byair pollution. Additionally, their study found that the poorest individuals with the lowest education levels are twice as burdened by air pollution as well-educated adults in comparatively high-income households, and both the infants and low-