Global Journal of Human Social Science, F: Political Science, Volume 22 Issue 5

in some communities along Shinkafi, Tsafe, Dansadau and Maradun with multiple number of death and loss of properties. The new violence is described as the most tragic in the history of the state with brutal murders and sexual intimidation among women and children. In trying to give an account of their tragedy, the victims considered the nature of the operation by the armed bandits as the most inhuman maltreatment against humanity. As captured by Shehu (2017), they are sexually harassing our women. Sometimes they would ask a resident to take his daughter or wife to their camp to rape. No one dares to stop them. This ugly development emerged at a time when people believed that, the peace deal entered in to between the state government and the bandits would serve as panacea to the crises. But why has the peace deal failed? This is attributed to many factors among which include, i). Absence of the political will from the site of the government to implement the agreement it has entered with the bandits. ii). Non-implementation of rehabilitation and reconstruction measures to bring succour to the victims of these conflicts. iii). The re-arrest of some members of the bandits by Department of the State Security Services (SSS) after they have signed the peace deal with the state as argued by Shehu (2017), the peace pact was jeopardized after a close associate of Buharin Daji called Dogon Bangaje was intercepted arrested and detained by the DSS. II. T heoretical F ramework The study adopted Queer Ladder Theory (QLT). This theory was influenced by an American sociologist, Daniel Bell (1965), who coined the idea of ‘queer ladder’ in an attempt to explain the functional significance of organized crime as a desperate tactic for socioeconomic empowerment and social climbing. This theoretical perspective has since fertilized into a popular theoretical framework widely used in contemporary crime studies. The basic assumptions of QLT are as follows: i). Organized crime is an instrumental behavior; it is a means to an end. ii). It is an instrument of social climbing and/or socio- economic advancement. iii). It is a means to accumulate wealth and build power. (Mallory, 2007). Often ascribed to QLT is the notion that organized crime thrives in contexts where the government’s capacity to dictate, sanction and deter crime is poor; where public corruption is endemic; and where legitimate livelihood opportunities are slim (Nwoye, 2000; Lyman, 2007; Okoli and Orinya, 2013). Under these circumstances, the incentive to indulge in life of crime is high, while deterrence from criminal living is low. Put differently, the benefits of committing a crime surpass the costs and/or risks. This creates pretext for criminal impunity and franchise (Okoli and Orinya, 2013; Okoli and Okpaleke, 2014). Applied to the purpose of this work, QLT enables us to come to terms with the prevalence of organized crime in Zamfara State. The theory will be used to look at the historical background of cattle rustling and armed banditry in Zamfara State. III. H istorical O ver- V iew of A rmed B anditry in Z amfara S tate S ince 2011 The history of armed banditry in Zamfara started since around 2009 but it became out of control in 2011 especially after the general elections. The causes of these unending conflicts are many even though people disagreed on causes to a varying extent. While many links the scenario to long term human conflicts between Fulani herders and farmers due to struggle of ownership of farm land and grazing areas, others see it as direct effect of reaction against socio-political and economic marginalization of the Fulani by their Hausa counterparts. As Kiruwa (2017) stated that, people tried to misconceive the cause of these conflicts in Zamfara and to say the facts, not all the attacks are carried out by the Fulani herders but because of the impression people have about our people, and every single action perpetrated in the rural communities is attributed to Fulani herdsmen. These acts of cattle rustling, and armed banditry has caused a lot of hardship and state of fear among the residents of the states. The miscreants who take advantage of the terrain of some of these areas rustled hundreds of thousands of cattle and other valuables as well as killed scores of people. Bello (2017) mentioned that, communities like Kwokeye, Bingi, Kizara, Mashema, Maji, Fanda, Haki, Matankari, Yar Katsina and many communities in Maru, Anka, Gusau, Tsafe, Birnin Magaji and Zurmi Local Governments were grossly affected. Apart from cattle rustling sometimes women faced constant intimidation and harassment including cases of rape and assault while children are forced to embark on unprepared migration due to the fear of the unknown. Shehu (2017) disclosed that, they are sexually harassing our women. Some time they would ask a resident to take his daughter or wife to their camp to rape and no one dares to stop them. From 2011 to date no accurate statistics could be provided as to the number of people killed through this act of armed banditry. Tukur (2017), opined that, people are killed in communities that are not even known to the security agencies and because of the nature of our community settlements, not all cases are © 2022 Global Journals Volume XXII Issue V Version I 16 ( ) Global Journal of Human Social Science - Year 2022 F An Overview of Armed Banditry in Northern Nigeria: A Case Study of Zamfara State